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Retropropagarea operatorului (OBP) pentru estimarea valorilor de așteptare

Estimare de utilizare: 16 minute pe un procesor Eagle r3 (NOTĂ: Aceasta este doar o estimare. Timpul tău de execuție poate varia.)

# Added by doQumentation — required packages for this notebook
!pip install -q matplotlib numpy qiskit qiskit-addon-obp qiskit-addon-utils qiskit-ibm-runtime rustworkx
# This cell is hidden from users;
# it disables linting rules.
# ruff: noqa

Fundal​

Retropropagarea operatorului este o tehnică care implică absorbția operațiilor de la sfârșitul unui Circuit cuantic în observabilul măsurat, reducând în general adâncimea Circuit-ului cu prețul unor termeni suplimentari în observabil. Scopul este de a retropropaga cât mai mult din Circuit posibil fără a permite observabilului să crească prea mult. O implementare bazată pe Qiskit este disponibilă în addon-ul OBP Qiskit; mai multe detalii pot fi găsite în documentația corespunzătoare cu un exemplu simplu pentru a începe.

Să considerăm un exemplu de Circuit pentru care un observabil O=∑PcPPO = \sum_P c_P P urmează să fie măsurat, unde PP sunt Pauli și cPc_P sunt coeficienți. Să notăm Circuit-ul ca un singur unitar UU care poate fi partiționat logic în U=UCUQU = U_C U_Q după cum se arată în figura de mai jos.

Circuit diagram showing Uq followed by Uc

Retropropagarea operatorului absoarbe unitarul UCU_C în observabil prin evoluția sa ca O′=UC†OUC=∑PcPUC†PUCO' = U_C^{\dagger}OU_C = \sum_P c_P U_C^{\dagger}PU_C. Cu alte cuvinte, o parte a calculului este efectuată clasic prin evoluția observabilului de la OO la O′O'. Problema originală poate fi acum reformulată ca măsurarea observabilului O′O' pentru noul Circuit cu adâncime mai mică al cărui unitar este UQU_Q.

Unitarul UCU_C este reprezentat ca un număr de felii UC=USUS−1...U2U1U_C = U_S U_{S-1}...U_2U_1. Există mai multe moduri de a defini o felie. De exemplu, în Circuit-ul exemplu de mai sus, fiecare strat de porți RzzR_{zz} și fiecare strat de porți RxR_x poate fi considerat o felie individuală. Retropropagarea implică calculul clasic O′=Πs=1S∑PcPUs†PUsO' = \Pi_{s=1}^S \sum_P c_P U_s^{\dagger} P U_s. Fiecare felie UsU_s poate fi reprezentată ca Us=exp(−iθsPs2)U_s = exp(\frac{-i\theta_s P_s}{2}), unde PsP_s este un Pauli pe nn Qubit-uri și θs\theta_s este un scalar. Este ușor de verificat că

Us†PUs=Pif [P,Ps]=0,U_s^{\dagger} P U_s = P \qquad \text{if} ~[P,P_s] = 0, Us†PUs=cos(θs)P+isin(θs)PsPif {P,Ps}=0U_s^{\dagger} P U_s = \qquad cos(\theta_s)P + i sin(\theta_s)P_sP \qquad \text{if} ~\{P,P_s\} = 0

În exemplul de mai sus, dacă {P,Ps}=0\{P,P_s\} = 0, atunci trebuie să executăm două Circuit-uri cuantice, în loc de unul, pentru a calcula valoarea de așteptare. Prin urmare, retropropagarea poate crește numărul de termeni din observabil, ducând la un număr mai mare de execuții de Circuit. O modalitate de a permite o retropropagare mai adâncă în Circuit, prevenind în același timp creșterea excesivă a operatorului, este să trunchiezi termenii cu coeficienți mici, în loc să îi adaugi operatorului. De exemplu, în exemplul de mai sus, s-ar putea alege să trunchiezi termenul care implică PsPP_sP dacă θs\theta_s este suficient de mic. Trunchierea termenilor poate rezulta în mai puține Circuit-uri cuantice de executat, dar face acest lucru cu prețul unei erori în calculul final al valorii de așteptare, proporțională cu magnitudinea coeficienților termenilor trunchiați.

Acest tutorial implementează un pattern Qiskit pentru simularea dinamicii cuantice a unui lanț de spin Heisenberg folosind qiskit-addon-obp.

Cerințe​

Înainte de a începe acest tutorial, asigură-te că ai instalat următoarele:

  • Qiskit SDK v1.2 sau ulterior (pip install qiskit)
  • Qiskit Runtime v0.28 sau ulterior (pip install qiskit-ibm-runtime)
  • OBP Qiskit addon (pip install qiskit-addon-obp)
  • Qiskit addon utils (pip install qiskit-addon-utils)

Configurare​

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

from qiskit.primitives import StatevectorEstimator as Estimator
from qiskit.transpiler.preset_passmanagers import generate_preset_pass_manager
from qiskit.quantum_info import SparsePauliOp
from qiskit.transpiler import CouplingMap
from qiskit.synthesis import LieTrotter

from qiskit_addon_utils.problem_generators import generate_xyz_hamiltonian
from qiskit_addon_utils.problem_generators import (
    generate_time_evolution_circuit,
)
from qiskit_addon_utils.slicing import slice_by_gate_types, combine_slices
from qiskit_addon_obp.utils.simplify import OperatorBudget
from qiskit_addon_obp import backpropagate
from qiskit_addon_obp.utils.truncating import setup_budget

from rustworkx.visualization import graphviz_draw

from qiskit_ibm_runtime import QiskitRuntimeService
from qiskit_ibm_runtime import EstimatorV2, EstimatorOptions

Partea I: Lanț de spin Heisenberg la scară mică​

Pasul 1: Maparea intrărilor clasice la o problemă cuantică​

Maparea evoluției temporale a unui model cuantic Heisenberg la un experiment cuantic.​

Pachetul qiskit_addon_utils oferă funcționalități reutilizabile pentru diverse scopuri.

Modulul său qiskit_addon_utils.problem_generators oferă funcții pentru generarea Hamiltonienelor de tip Heisenberg pe un graf de conectivitate dat. Acest graf poate fi fie un rustworkx.PyGraph, fie un CouplingMap, ceea ce îl face ușor de utilizat în fluxurile de lucru centrate pe Qiskit.

În cele ce urmează, generăm un CouplingMap de tip lanț liniar cu 10 Qubiți.

num_qubits = 10
layout = [(i - 1, i) for i in range(1, num_qubits)]

# Instantiate a CouplingMap object
coupling_map = CouplingMap(layout)
graphviz_draw(coupling_map.graph, method="circo")

Output of the previous code cell

Apoi, generăm un operator Pauli care modelează un Hamiltonian Heisenberg XYZ.

H^XYZ=∑(j,k)∈E(Jxσjxσkx+Jyσjyσky+Jzσjzσkz)+∑j∈V(hxσjx+hyσjy+hzσjz){\hat{\mathcal{H}}_{XYZ} = \sum_{(j,k)\in E} (J_{x} \sigma_j^{x} \sigma_{k}^{x} + J_{y} \sigma_j^{y} \sigma_{k}^{y} + J_{z} \sigma_j^{z} \sigma_{k}^{z}) + \sum_{j\in V} (h_{x} \sigma_j^{x} + h_{y} \sigma_j^{y} + h_{z} \sigma_j^{z})}

Unde G(V,E)G(V,E) este graful hărții de cuplare furnizate.

# Get a qubit operator describing the Heisenberg XYZ model
hamiltonian = generate_xyz_hamiltonian(
    coupling_map,
    coupling_constants=(np.pi / 8, np.pi / 4, np.pi / 2),
    ext_magnetic_field=(np.pi / 3, np.pi / 6, np.pi / 9),
)
print(hamiltonian)
SparsePauliOp(['IIIIIIIXXI', 'IIIIIIIYYI', 'IIIIIIIZZI', 'IIIIIXXIII', 'IIIIIYYIII', 'IIIIIZZIII', 'IIIXXIIIII', 'IIIYYIIIII', 'IIIZZIIIII', 'IXXIIIIIII', 'IYYIIIIIII', 'IZZIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIXX', 'IIIIIIIIYY', 'IIIIIIIIZZ', 'IIIIIIXXII', 'IIIIIIYYII', 'IIIIIIZZII', 'IIIIXXIIII', 'IIIIYYIIII', 'IIIIZZIIII', 'IIXXIIIIII', 'IIYYIIIIII', 'IIZZIIIIII', 'XXIIIIIIII', 'YYIIIIIIII', 'ZZIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIX', 'IIIIIIIIIY', 'IIIIIIIIIZ', 'IIIIIIIIXI', 'IIIIIIIIYI', 'IIIIIIIIZI', 'IIIIIIIXII', 'IIIIIIIYII', 'IIIIIIIZII', 'IIIIIIXIII', 'IIIIIIYIII', 'IIIIIIZIII', 'IIIIIXIIII', 'IIIIIYIIII', 'IIIIIZIIII', 'IIIIXIIIII', 'IIIIYIIIII', 'IIIIZIIIII', 'IIIXIIIIII', 'IIIYIIIIII', 'IIIZIIIIII', 'IIXIIIIIII', 'IIYIIIIIII', 'IIZIIIIIII', 'IXIIIIIIII', 'IYIIIIIIII', 'IZIIIIIIII', 'XIIIIIIIII', 'YIIIIIIIII', 'ZIIIIIIIII'],
              coeffs=[0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j])

Din operatorul de Qubit, putem genera un Circuit cuantic care modelează evoluția sa temporală. Din nou, modulul qiskit_addon_utils.problem_generators vine în ajutor cu o funcție practică pentru exact asta:

circuit = generate_time_evolution_circuit(
    hamiltonian,
    time=0.2,
    synthesis=LieTrotter(reps=2),
)
circuit.draw("mpl", style="iqp", scale=0.6)

Output of the previous code cell

Pasul 2: Optimizarea problemei pentru execuția pe hardware cuantic​

Crearea feliilor de Circuit pentru retropropagare​

Amintește-ți, funcția backpropagate va retropropaga felii întregi de Circuit la un moment dat, deci alegerea modului de a tăia în felii poate influența cât de bine funcționează retropropagarea pentru o problemă dată. Aici, vom grupa porțile de același tip în felii folosind funcția slice_by_gate_types.

Pentru o discuție mai detaliată despre tăierea în felii a Circuit-urilor, consultați acest ghid practic al pachetului qiskit-addon-utils.

slices = slice_by_gate_types(circuit)
print(f"Separated the circuit into {len(slices)} slices.")
Separated the circuit into 18 slices.

Constrângerea dimensiunii maxime pe care operatorul o poate atinge în timpul retropropagării​

În timpul retropropagării, numărul de termeni din operator va tinde în general să se apropie rapid de 4N4^N, unde NN este numărul de Qubiți. Când doi termeni din operator nu comutează qubit-wise, avem nevoie de Circuit-uri separate pentru a obține valorile de așteptare corespunzătoare. De exemplu, dacă avem un observabil pe 2 Qubiți O=0.1XX+0.3IZ−0.5IXO = 0.1 XX + 0.3 IZ - 0.5 IX, atunci deoarece [XX,IX]=0[XX,IX] = 0, măsurarea într-o singură bază este suficientă pentru a calcula valorile de așteptare pentru acești doi termeni. Cu toate acestea, IZIZ anti-comutează cu ceilalți doi termeni. Deci avem nevoie de o măsurare în bază separată pentru a calcula valoarea de așteptare a IZIZ. Cu alte cuvinte, avem nevoie de două, în loc de un singur, Circuit pentru a calcula ⟨O⟩\langle O \rangle. Pe măsură ce numărul de termeni din operator crește, există posibilitatea ca numărul necesar de execuții de Circuit să crească și el.

Dimensiunea operatorului poate fi limitată specificând argumentul keyword operator_budget al funcției backpropagate, care acceptă o instanță OperatorBudget.

Pentru a controla cantitatea de resurse suplimentare (timp) alocate, restricționăm numărul maxim de grupuri Pauli care comutează qubit-wise pe care observabilul retropropagat are voie să le aibă. Aici specificăm că retropropagarea ar trebui să se oprească când numărul de grupuri Pauli care comutează qubit-wise din operator depășește 8.

op_budget = OperatorBudget(max_qwc_groups=8)

Retropropagarea feliilor din Circuit​

Mai întâi specificăm observabilul ca MZ=1N∑i=1N⟨Zi⟩M_Z = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^N \langle Z_i \rangle, NN fiind numărul de Qubiți. Vom retropropaga felii din Circuit-ul de evoluție temporală până când termenii din observabil nu mai pot fi combinați în opt sau mai puține grupuri Pauli care comutează qubit-wise.

observable = SparsePauliOp.from_sparse_list(
    [("Z", [i], 1 / num_qubits) for i in range(num_qubits)],
    num_qubits=num_qubits,
)
observable
SparsePauliOp(['IIIIIIIIIZ', 'IIIIIIIIZI', 'IIIIIIIZII', 'IIIIIIZIII', 'IIIIIZIIII', 'IIIIZIIIII', 'IIIZIIIIII', 'IIZIIIIIII', 'IZIIIIIIII', 'ZIIIIIIIII'],
              coeffs=[0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j,
 0.1+0.j, 0.1+0.j])

Mai jos vei vedea că am retropropagat șase felii, iar termenii au fost combinați în șase și nu opt grupuri. Asta implică că retropropagarea încă unei felii ar determina numărul de grupuri Pauli să depășească opt. Putem verifica că acesta este cazul inspectând metadatele returnate. De asemenea, rețineți că în această porțiune transformarea Circuit-ului este exactă. Adică, niciun termen al noului observabil O′O' nu a fost trunchiat. Circuit-ul retropropagat și operatorul retropropagat dau exact același rezultat ca Circuit-ul original și operatorul original.

# Backpropagate slices onto the observable
bp_obs, remaining_slices, metadata = backpropagate(
    observable, slices, operator_budget=op_budget
)
# Recombine the slices remaining after backpropagation
bp_circuit = combine_slices(remaining_slices)

print(f"Backpropagated {metadata.num_backpropagated_slices} slices.")
print(
    f"New observable has {len(bp_obs.paulis)} terms, which can be combined into {len(bp_obs.group_commuting(qubit_wise=True))} groups."
)
print(
    f"Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_paulis[0]} terms "
    f"across {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_qwc_groups} groups."
)
print("The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:")
bp_circuit.draw("mpl", fold=-1, scale=0.6)
Backpropagated 6 slices.
New observable has 60 terms, which can be combined into 6 groups.
Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in 114 terms across 12 groups.
The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:

Output of the previous code cell

Urmează să specificăm aceeași problemă cu aceleași constrângeri asupra dimensiunii observabilului de ieșire. De această dată, însă, alocăm un buget de eroare fiecărei felii folosind funcția setup_budget. Termenii Pauli cu coeficienți mici vor fi trunchiați din fiecare felie până când bugetul de eroare este epuizat, iar bugetul rămas va fi adăugat la bugetul feliei următoare. Rețineți că în acest caz, transformarea datorată retropropagării este aproximativă deoarece unii termeni din operator sunt trunchiați.

Pentru a activa această trunchiere, trebuie să configurăm bugetul de eroare astfel:

truncation_error_budget = setup_budget(max_error_per_slice=0.005)

Rețineți că alocând 5e-3 eroare pe felie pentru trunchiere, putem elimina încă 1 felie din Circuit, rămânând în bugetul original de opt grupuri Pauli care comutează în observabil. În mod implicit, backpropagate folosește norma L1 a coeficienților trunchiați pentru a limita eroarea totală acumulată din trunchiere. Pentru alte opțiuni, consultați ghidul practic despre specificarea p_norm.

În acest exemplu particular unde am retropropagat șapte felii, eroarea totală de trunchiere nu ar trebui să depășească (5e-3 eroare/felie) * (7 felii) = 3.5e-2. Pentru discuții suplimentare despre distribuirea unui buget de eroare pe feliile tale, consultați acest ghid practic.

# Run the same experiment but truncate observable terms with small coefficients
bp_obs_trunc, remaining_slices_trunc, metadata = backpropagate(
    observable,
    slices,
    operator_budget=op_budget,
    truncation_error_budget=truncation_error_budget,
)

# Recombine the slices remaining after backpropagation
bp_circuit_trunc = combine_slices(
    remaining_slices_trunc, include_barriers=False
)

print(f"Backpropagated {metadata.num_backpropagated_slices} slices.")
print(
    f"New observable has {len(bp_obs_trunc.paulis)} terms, which can be combined into {len(bp_obs_trunc.group_commuting(qubit_wise=True))} groups.\n"
    f"After truncation, the error in our observable is bounded by {metadata.accumulated_error(0):.3e}"
)
print(
    f"Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_paulis[0]} terms "
    f"across {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_qwc_groups} groups."
)
print("The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:")
bp_circuit_trunc.draw("mpl", scale=0.6)
Backpropagated 7 slices.
New observable has 82 terms, which can be combined into 8 groups.
After truncation, the error in our observable is bounded by 3.266e-02
Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in 114 terms across 12 groups.
The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:

Output of the previous code cell

Observăm că trunchierea ne permite să retropropagăm mai departe fără a crește numărul de grupuri comutative din observabil.

Acum că avem ansatz-ul redus și observabilele extinse, putem transpila experimentele pe Backend.​

Aici vom folosi un calculator cuantic IBM® de 127 de Qubiți pentru a demonstra cum să transpilezi pe un Backend QPU.

service = QiskitRuntimeService()
backend = service.least_busy(
    operational=True, simulator=False, min_num_qubits=127
)
pm = generate_preset_pass_manager(backend=backend, optimization_level=1)

# Transpile original experiment
circuit_isa = pm.run(circuit)
observable_isa = observable.apply_layout(circuit_isa.layout)

# Transpile backpropagated experiment
bp_circuit_isa = pm.run(bp_circuit)
bp_obs_isa = bp_obs.apply_layout(bp_circuit_isa.layout)

# Transpile the backpropagated experiment with truncated observable terms
bp_circuit_trunc_isa = pm.run(bp_circuit_trunc)
bp_obs_trunc_isa = bp_obs_trunc.apply_layout(bp_circuit_trunc_isa.layout)

Creăm Primitive Unified Bloc (PUB) pentru fiecare dintre cele trei cazuri.

pub = (circuit_isa, observable_isa)
bp_pub = (bp_circuit_isa, bp_obs_isa)
bp_trunc_pub = (bp_circuit_trunc_isa, bp_obs_trunc_isa)

Pasul 3: Execuție folosind primitivele Qiskit​

Calculul valorii de așteptare​

În final, putem rula experimentele retropropagate și le putem compara cu experimentul complet folosind StatevectorEstimator fără zgomot.

ideal_estimator = Estimator()

# Run the experiments using Estimator primitive to obtain the exact outcome
result_exact = (
    ideal_estimator.run([(circuit, observable)]).result()[0].data.evs.item()
)
print(f"Exact expectation value: {result_exact}")
Exact expectation value: 0.8871244838989416

Vom folosi resilience_level = 2 pentru acest exemplu.

options = EstimatorOptions()
options.default_precision = 0.011
options.resilience_level = 2

estimator = EstimatorV2(mode=backend, options=options)
job = estimator.run([pub, bp_pub, bp_trunc_pub])

Pasul 4: Post-procesare și returnarea rezultatului în formatul clasic dorit​

result_no_bp = job.result()[0].data.evs.item()
result_bp = job.result()[1].data.evs.item()
result_bp_trunc = job.result()[2].data.evs.item()

std_no_bp = job.result()[0].data.stds.item()
std_bp = job.result()[1].data.stds.item()
std_bp_trunc = job.result()[2].data.stds.item()
print(
    f"Expectation value without backpropagation: {result_no_bp} ± {std_no_bp}"
)
print(f"Backpropagated expectation value: {result_bp} ± {std_bp}")
print(
    f"Backpropagated expectation value with truncation: {result_bp_trunc} ± {std_bp_trunc}"
)
Expectation value without backpropagation: 0.8033194665993642
Backpropagated expectation value: 0.8599808781259016
Backpropagated expectation value with truncation: 0.8868736004169483
methods = [
    "No backpropagation",
    "Backpropagation",
    "Backpropagation w/ truncation",
]
values = [result_no_bp, result_bp, result_bp_trunc]
stds = [std_no_bp, std_bp, std_bp_trunc]

ax = plt.gca()
plt.bar(methods, values, color="#a56eff", width=0.4, edgecolor="#8a3ffc")
plt.axhline(result_exact)
ax.set_ylim([0.6, 0.92])
plt.text(0.2, 0.895, "Exact result")
ax.set_ylabel(r"$M_Z$", fontsize=12)
Text(0, 0.5, '$M_Z$')

Output of the previous code cell

Partea B: Scalează problema!​

Hai să folosim acum Backpropagarea Operatorilor pentru a studia dinamica Hamiltonianului unui lanț de spin Heisenberg cu 50 de qubiți.

Pasul 1: Mapează intrările clasice la o problemă cuantică​

Considerăm un Hamiltonian cu 50 de qubiți H^XYZ\hat{\mathcal{H}}_{XYZ} pentru problema la scară mare, cu aceleași valori ale coeficienților JJ și hh ca în exemplul la scară mică. Observabila MZ=1N∑i=1N⟨Zi⟩M_Z = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^N \langle Z_i \rangle este, de asemenea, aceeași ca înainte. Această problemă depășește simularea clasică prin forță brută.

num_qubits = 50
layout = [(i - 1, i) for i in range(1, num_qubits)]

# Instantiate a CouplingMap object
coupling_map = CouplingMap(layout)
graphviz_draw(coupling_map.graph, method="circo")

Output of the previous code cell

hamiltonian = generate_xyz_hamiltonian(
    coupling_map,
    coupling_constants=(np.pi / 8, np.pi / 4, np.pi / 2),
    ext_magnetic_field=(np.pi / 3, np.pi / 6, np.pi / 9),
)
print(hamiltonian)
SparsePauliOp(['IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXXI', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIYYI', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZZI', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXXIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIYYIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZZIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXXIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIYYIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZZIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXXIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIYYIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZZIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXXIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIYYIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZZIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIXXIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIYYIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZZIIIIIIIIIII', 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 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j,
 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j,
 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j,
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 0.39269908+0.j, 0.78539816+0.j, 1.57079633+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j,
 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j,
 0.52359878+0.j, 0.34906585+0.j, 1.04719755+0.j, 0.52359878+0.j,
 0.34906585+0.j])
observable = SparsePauliOp.from_sparse_list(
    [("Z", [i], 1 / num_qubits) for i in range(num_qubits)],
    num_qubits,
)
observable
SparsePauliOp(['IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZ', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZI', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IIZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'IZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII', 'ZIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII'],
              coeffs=[0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j, 0.02+0.j,
 0.02+0.j])

Pentru această problemă la scară mare am considerat timpul de evoluție ca 0.20.2 cu 44 pași trotter. Problema este aleasă astfel încât să depășească simularea clasică prin forță brută, dar poate fi simulată prin metoda rețelelor tensoriale. Acest lucru ne permite să verificăm rezultatul obținut prin backpropagare pe un calculator cuantic cu rezultatul ideal.

Valoarea de așteptare ideală pentru această problemă, obținută prin simulare cu rețele tensoriale, este ≃0.89\simeq 0.89.

circuit = generate_time_evolution_circuit(
    hamiltonian,
    time=0.2,
    synthesis=LieTrotter(reps=4),
)
circuit.draw("mpl", style="iqp", fold=-1, scale=0.6)

Output of the previous code cell

Pasul 2: Optimizează problema pentru execuția pe hardware cuantic​

slices = slice_by_gate_types(circuit)
print(f"Separated the circuit into {len(slices)} slices.")
Separated the circuit into 36 slices.

Specificăm max_error_per_slice ca 0.005 ca înainte. Totuși, deoarece numărul de secțiuni pentru această problemă la scară mare este mult mai mare decât în problema la scară mică, a permite o eroare de 0.005 per secțiune poate genera o eroare totală de backpropagare mare. Putem limita aceasta specificând max_error_total, care mărginește eroarea totală de backpropagare, și îi setăm valoarea la 0.03 (aproximativ aceeași ca în exemplul la scară mică).

Pentru acest exemplu la scară mare, permitem o valoare mai mare pentru numărul de grupuri comutative și o setăm la 15.

op_budget = OperatorBudget(max_qwc_groups=15)
truncation_error_budget = setup_budget(
    max_error_total=0.03, max_error_per_slice=0.005
)

Să obținem mai întâi circuitul și observabila backpropagate fără nicio trunchiere.

bp_obs, remaining_slices, metadata = backpropagate(
    observable, slices, operator_budget=op_budget
)
bp_circuit = combine_slices(remaining_slices)

print(f"Backpropagated {metadata.num_backpropagated_slices} slices.")
print(
    f"New observable has {len(bp_obs.paulis)} terms, which can be combined into {len(bp_obs.group_commuting(qubit_wise=True))} groups."
)
print(
    f"Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_paulis[0]} terms "
    f"across {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_qwc_groups} groups."
)
print("The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:")
bp_circuit.draw("mpl", fold=-1, scale=0.6)
Backpropagated 7 slices.
New observable has 634 terms, which can be combined into 12 groups.
Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in 1246 terms across 27 groups.
The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:

Output of the previous code cell

Acum, permițând trunchiere, obținem:

bp_obs_trunc, remaining_slices_trunc, metadata = backpropagate(
    observable,
    slices,
    operator_budget=op_budget,
    truncation_error_budget=truncation_error_budget,
)

# Recombine the slices remaining after backpropagation
bp_circuit_trunc = combine_slices(
    remaining_slices_trunc, include_barriers=False
)

print(f"Backpropagated {metadata.num_backpropagated_slices} slices.")
print(
    f"New observable has {len(bp_obs_trunc.paulis)} terms, which can be combined into {len(bp_obs_trunc.group_commuting(qubit_wise=True))} groups.\n"
    f"After truncation, the error in our observable is bounded by {metadata.accumulated_error(0):.3e}"
)
print(
    f"Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_paulis[0]} terms "
    f"across {metadata.backpropagation_history[-1].num_qwc_groups} groups."
)
print("The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:")
bp_circuit_trunc.draw("mpl", fold=-1, scale=0.6)
Backpropagated 10 slices.
New observable has 646 terms, which can be combined into 14 groups.
After truncation, the error in our observable is bounded by 2.998e-02
Note that backpropagating one more slice would result in 1226 terms across 29 groups.
The remaining circuit after backpropagation looks as follows:

Output of the previous code cell

Observăm că permițând trunchiere se ajunge la backpropagarea a trei secțiuni suplimentare. Putem verifica adâncimea pe 2 qubiți a circuitului original, a circuitului backpropagat și a circuitului backpropagat cu trunchiere după transpilare.

# Transpile original experiment
circuit_isa = pm.run(circuit)
observable_isa = observable.apply_layout(circuit_isa.layout)

# Transpile the backpropagated experiment
bp_circuit_isa = pm.run(bp_circuit)
bp_obs_isa = bp_obs_trunc.apply_layout(bp_circuit_isa.layout)

# Transpile the backpropagated experiment with truncated observable terms
bp_circuit_trunc_isa = pm.run(bp_circuit_trunc)
bp_obs_trunc_isa = bp_obs_trunc.apply_layout(bp_circuit_trunc_isa.layout)
print(
    f"2-qubit depth of original circuit: {circuit_isa.depth(lambda x:x.operation.num_qubits==2)}"
)
print(
    f"2-qubit depth of backpropagated circuit: {bp_circuit_isa.depth(lambda x:x.operation.num_qubits==2)}"
)
print(
    f"2-qubit depth of backpropagated circuit with truncation: {bp_circuit_trunc_isa.depth(lambda x:x.operation.num_qubits==2)}"
)
2-qubit depth of original circuit: 48
2-qubit depth of backpropagated circuit: 40
2-qubit depth of backpropagated circuit with truncation: 36

Pasul 3: Execută folosind primitivele Qiskit​

pubs = [
    (circuit_isa, observable_isa),
    (bp_circuit_isa, bp_obs_isa),
    (bp_circuit_trunc_isa, bp_obs_trunc_isa),
]
options = EstimatorOptions()
options.default_precision = 0.01
options.resilience_level = 2
options.resilience.zne.noise_factors = [1, 1.2, 1.4]
options.resilience.zne.extrapolator = ["linear"]

estimator = EstimatorV2(mode=backend, options=options)
job = estimator.run(pubs)

Pasul 4: Post-procesează și returnează rezultatul în formatul clasic dorit​

result_no_bp = job.result()[0].data.evs.item()
result_bp = job.result()[1].data.evs.item()
result_bp_trunc = job.result()[2].data.evs.item()
print(f"Expectation value without backpropagation: {result_no_bp}")
print(f"Backpropagated expectation value: {result_bp}")
print(f"Backpropagated expectation value with truncation: {result_bp_trunc}")
Expectation value without backpropagation: 0.7887194658035515
Backpropagated expectation value: 0.9532818300978584
Backpropagated expectation value with truncation: 0.8913400398926913
methods = [
    "No backpropagation",
    "Backpropagation",
    "Backpropagation w/ truncation",
]
values = [result_no_bp, result_bp, result_bp_trunc]

ax = plt.gca()
plt.bar(methods, values, color="#a56eff", width=0.4, edgecolor="#8a3ffc")
plt.axhline(0.89)
ax.set_ylim([0.6, 0.98])
plt.text(0.2, 0.895, "Exact result")
ax.set_ylabel(r"$M_Z$", fontsize=12)
Text(0, 0.5, '$M_Z$')

Output of the previous code cell

Sondaj tutorial​

Te rog să completezi acest scurt sondaj pentru a oferi feedback despre acest tutorial. Părerile tale ne vor ajuta să îmbunătățim conținutul și experiența utilizatorilor.

Link la sondaj

Note: This survey is provided by IBM Quantum and relates to the original English content. To give feedback on doQumentation's website, translations, or code execution, please open a GitHub issue.

Sursă: IBM Quantum docs — actualizat 15 mai 2026
Versiunea în engleză pe doQumentation — actualizată 15 mai 2026
Această traducere se bazează pe versiunea în engleză din 9 apr. 2026
Problemă cu site-ul sau cu traducerea?Problemă de conținut? Editează pe IBM Quantum docs